The amount of bending depends on the extent of penetration ( which is a function of frequency ), the polarization of the wave, and ionospheric conditions, such as the ionization density.
2.
In brief, conditions at the two terminii of a path generally cause dissimilar polarization shifts, dissimilar splits into ordinary rays and extraordinary or " Pedersen rays " which are erratic and impossibly identical or similar due to variations in ionization density, shifting zenith angles, effects of the earth's magnetic DIPOLE contours, antenna radiation patterns, ground conditions and other variables.
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