That is, if one provides a valid deductive argument ( an inference from premises to a conclusion ) for a given claim, then the content of the claim must already be contained within the premises of the argument ( if it is not, then the argument is ampliative and so is invalid ).
22.
This has not been the definition taken in this article, but the idea that logic treats special forms of argument, deductive argument, rather than argument in general, has a history in logic that dates back at least to logicism in mathematics ( 19th and 20th centuries ) and the advent of the influence of mathematical logic on philosophy.
23.
This is a standard logical deductive argument in the form of A = B, B = C, = > A = C . Saying that Breitbart . com is limited by WP : QS because it is a questionably source is not circular reasoning, it's a matter of defining terms, identifying WP policy, and then applying WP policy.
24.
Universalism inevitably results in what Shapiro calls method driven rather than problem driven social science . Hypotheses are formulated in empirically intractable ways : evidence is selected and tested in a biased fashion; conclusions are drawn without serious attention to competing explanations; empirical anomalies and discordant facts are often either ignored or circumvented by way of post hoc alterations to deductive arguments . . . These issues generate and reinforce a debilitating syndrome in which theories are elaborated and modified in order to save their universal character, rather than by reference to the requirements of viable empirical testing.
25.
Where a standard deductive argument looks for what we can deduce from the fact of X, and a standard inductive argument looks for what we can infer from experience of X, a transcendental argument looks for the necessary prior conditions to both the fact and experience of X . Thus, " I entitle "'transcendental "'all knowledge which is occupied not so much with objects as with the mode of our knowledge of objects insofar as this mode of knowledge is to be possible " a priori " . " ( Immanuel Kant, Critique of Pure Reason, Introduction, VII ).
