When a steel section is cold-formed from flat sheet or strip the yield strength, and to a lesser extent the ultimate strength, are increased as a result of this cold working, particularly in the bends of the section.
42.
Starting with aircraft # 530, cold working at WS0 was performed, and this retrofit was performed on earlier aircraft . A fourth, even more drastic change was initiated with aircraft # 582, again to address the problems discovered with spectrum 3 testing.
43.
Modern glass studios use a great variety of techniques in creating glass artworks, including working glass at room temperature cold working, stained glass, working glass in a torch flame ( lampworking ), glass beadmaking, glass casting, glass fusing, and, most notably, glass blowing.
44.
Such "'built-in stress "'may occur due to many physical causes, either during manufacture ( in processes like extrusion, casting or cold working ), or after the fact ( for example because of uneven heating, or changes in moisture content or chemical composition ).
45.
These directions define the so-called sample reference frame and are, because the investigation of textures started from the cold working of metals, usually referred to as the rolling direction " RD ", the transverse direction " TD " and the normal direction " ND ".
46.
The stresses can be the result of the crevice loads due to stress concentration, or can be caused by the type of assembly or residual stresses from fabrication ( e . g . cold working ); the residual stresses can be relieved by annealing or other surface treatments.
47.
BOS steel usually contains lower concentrations of residual elements such as copper, nickel and molybdenum and is therefore more malleable than electric arc furnace ( EAF ) steel and is often used to make automotive fenders, tin cans, industrial drums or any product with a large degree of cold working.
48.
When metals are subjected to " cold working " ( deformation at temperatures which are relatively low as compared to the material's absolute melting temperature, " T m ", i . e ., typically less than 0.4 " T m " ) the dislocation density increases due to the formation of new dislocations and dislocation multiplication.
